IPBES Nexus Assessment: Summary and All 71 Response Options

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How are biodiversity, water, food, health and climate change linked?

The IPBES Nexus Assessment examines the interlinkages among biodiversity, water, food, health and climate change. Its Summary for Policymakers was approved in December 2024. It assessed the impacts of 71 response options on the five nexus elements, and 43 of them are rated positive for all five. Scenarios that prioritize a single element without regard to the others will result in trade-offs across the nexus.

This page, compiled by Karatsu Farm & Food, a nonprofit in Karatsu, Japan, lists the key messages of the Summary for Policymakers (SPM) and the full rating table of the 71 response options (Figure SPM.8). It adds no evaluation of its own and records only what the SPM states. All sources are listed in the source ledger below.

What is the IPBES Nexus Assessment?

Its full title is the Thematic Assessment Report on the Interlinkages among Biodiversity, Water, Food and Health. The Summary for Policymakers was approved, and the chapters accepted, at the eleventh session of the IPBES Plenary, held from 10 to 16 December 2024 in Windhoek, Namibia. It was prepared by 165 selected experts from all regions of the world, assisted by over 70 contributing authors, drawing on 6,500 publications and Indigenous and local knowledge.

The final English Summary for Policymakers was published on Zenodo on 16 June 2025 (DOI 10.5281/zenodo.13850289). A Japanese translation by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan and IGES is also available. Figures on this page were checked against the final English version.

Section	What the SPM says	Ref.
A Past and current	For the past 30 to 50 years, all assessed indicators show biodiversity declines of 2 to 6 per cent per decade	KM-A1
	Current economic and financial systems invest $7 trillion per year in activities that damage biodiversity and other nexus elements	KM-A3
	More than half of the world's population lives in areas experiencing the highest impacts from declines in biodiversity, water and food security and from increases in health risks and negative climate change impacts	KM-A3
B Future	The costs of addressing biodiversity loss would double if delayed by 10 years (e.g., from 2021 to 2030)	KM-B1
	Delaying action on climate change could add an estimated minimum of $500 billion per year	KM-B1
	Scenarios that prioritize objectives for a single element of the nexus without regard to other elements will result in trade-offs across the nexus	KM-B1
C Response options	Seventy-one response options were assessed in depth, in 10 broad categories	KM-C1
	Together, the 71 options would support all 17 SDGs, all 23 targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and the long-term mitigation and adaptation goals of the Paris Agreement	KM-C3
	Twenty-four options each advance more than five SDGs and more than five targets of the Framework	KM-C3
D Governance and finance	Gaps in finance for biodiversity amount to $0.3 trillion to $1 trillion per year; additional investment needs for the SDGs most related to water, food, health and climate change come to at least $4 trillion per year	KM-D2

Four sets of key messages

The key messages are grouped into A (past and current nexus interactions), B (future nexus interactions), C (response options) and D (governance and finance). Section A reports that, for the past 30 to 50 years, all assessed indicators show biodiversity declines of 2 to 6 per cent per decade. Section B states that the costs of addressing biodiversity loss would double if delayed by 10 years, and that delaying action on climate change could add an estimated minimum of $500 billion per year.

Section C assesses 71 response options, and Section D sets out finance gaps: $0.3 trillion to $1 trillion per year for biodiversity, and at least $4 trillion per year in additional investment for the SDGs most directly related to water, food, health and climate change.

71 response options in 10 categories

The 71 response options are grouped into 10 categories: conserve ecosystems, restore ecosystems, manage ecosystems, consume sustainably, reduce pollution, integrate planning and governance, manage risk, ensure rights and equity, align financing, and others (KM-C1).

As examples with potential benefits across all nexus elements, the SPM lists integrated landscape and seascape management, efficient water use in agriculture, sustainable healthy diets, biodiversity management for zoonoses, sustainable bioeconomy, and restoration of ecosystems that contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation (forests, soils, wetlands, peatlands and mangroves). It gives offshore wind power and dam operation as examples of options that may have unintended negative consequences for other nexus elements if not carefully implemented (KM-C1).

Category	Code	Response option	Biodiversity	Water	Food	Health	Climate change
Conserve ecosystems	B01	Area-based conservation	+ large	+ small	+ small	+ medium	+ medium
	F01	Halt conversion of ecosystems of high ecological integrity	+ large	+ large	+ small	+ medium	+ large
	H10	Forest conservation for health	+ large	+ large	+ medium	+ large	+ large
Restore ecosystems	B05	Forest landscape restoration	+ large	+ large	+ small	+ medium	+ large
	B06	Restoration of coastal and marine systems	+ medium	+ medium	+ small	IC/NE	+ medium
	B07	Restoration of inland water systems	+ small	+ medium	+ small	+ medium	+ medium
	B08	Rewilding	+ large	+ large	− small	+ small	+ large
	F02	Restore soil health	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium	+ large
	H08	Mangrove conservation and restoration for health	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium
	C04	Wetland conservation and restoration	+ large	+ large	+ small	No impact	+ medium
	C13	Restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems for carbon sequestration	+ large	+ medium	+ large	+ small	+ large
Manage ecosystems	B03/C11	Agroecology*	+ medium	+ large	+ medium	+ small	+ large
	W05	Sustainable inland fisheries	+ medium	+ medium	+ large	+ medium	+ large
	W11	Manage alien species	+ large	+ small	+ small	+ small	− small
	F04	Ecological intensification – croplands	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ small	+ large
	F05	Ecological intensification – rangelands	+ large	+ small	+ small	+ small	+ medium
	F06	Ecological intensification – aquatic foods	+ small	− medium	+ large	+ small	+ large
	C01	Increase soil organic carbon	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium	+ large
	C03	Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture	No impact	No impact	+ medium	+ small	+ medium
	C12	Forest-based practices to address climate change	+ small	+ small	− small	+ medium	+ large
Consume sustainably	W04	Efficient water use in agriculture	+ medium	+ large	+ small	+ medium	+ medium
	F10	Reduce food loss and waste	+ small	+ small	+ medium	+ small	+ medium
	F11/C15	Sustainable healthy diets*	+ medium	No impact	+ small	+ medium	+ large
	H04	Sustainable use of medicinal plants	+ medium	+ small	+ small	+ medium	+ small
	H06	Reduce meat overconsumption	+ large	No impact	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	C05	Offshore wind power	− small	− small	− small	− small	+ small
	C06	Solar photovoltaics on land	− small	+ medium	No impact	+ medium	+ large
	C07	Sustainable bioeconomy	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ large
Reduce pollution	W12	Manage wastewater	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	F07	Reduce nutrient pollution	+ large	+ small	No impact	+ small	No impact
	F08	Reduce pesticide pollution	+ medium	+ small	+ medium	+ medium	No impact
	F09	Reduce plastic pollution	IC	+ small	+ small	+ small	+ small
	H07	Pollution prevention	+ medium	+ large	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	C02/F03	Sustainable intensification*	+ small	+ small	+ large	+ medium	+ large
	C08	Reduce short-lived climate pollutants	No impact	NE	+ small	+ medium	+ small
Integrate planning and governance	B09	Integrated landscape and seascape approaches	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium	+ large
	B12	Land and sea planning	+ small	+ small	+ small	+ medium	+ small
	W02	Integrated water infrastructure	+ small	+ medium	+ medium	+ small	+ medium
	W08	Transboundary water cooperation	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	NE	+ medium
	W09	Groundwater governance	+ medium	+ small	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	W13	Water-sensitive urban infrastructure	No impact	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	W15	Community water management	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	F12	City region food systems	No impact	− small	+ small	+ medium	+ small
	H12	Integrated watershed-health interventions	+ large	+ large	+ medium	+ medium	+ small
Manage risk	B02/C14	Urban nature-based solutions*	+ large	+ medium	+ small	+ medium	+ medium
	B04	Ecosystem-based adaptation in rural landscapes	+ large	+ medium	+ medium	+ small	+ large
	W03	Dam operation	No impact	+ small	− small	− small	− medium
	H03	Net-zero sustainable healthcare	+ large	+ medium	+ medium	+ large	+ large
	H09	Urban green infrastructure	+ large	+ large	+ small	+ medium	+ medium
	H11	Biodiversity management for zoonoses	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium
	H13	Health impact assessments	+ medium	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium
	H14	The One Health approach	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ large	+ small
	C09	Multi-hazard early warning systems	+ medium	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium
Ensure rights and equity	B10	Rights-based approaches	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium
	W01	Inclusive water education	IC	IC	+ medium	+ small	IC
	W06	Inclusive water management	+ small	+ small	NE	NE	NE
	W07	Rights of nature	IC	+ medium	IC	+ small	IC
	W14	Address gendered burdens of water collection	NE	+ medium	+ medium	+ medium	+ small
	F14	Foster gender transformative approaches	+ small	+ medium	+ small	+ medium	+ small
	F15	Indigenous food systems	+ large	+ medium	+ large	+ large	+ medium
	F16	Access to natural resources and land	+ small	+ medium	+ small	+ small	+ medium
	H01	Universal health coverage	IC/NE	+ small	+ small	+ large	+ medium
	H02	Intercultural health services	IC/NE	NE	+ medium	+ medium	NE
Align financing	B13	Natural capital accounting	+ large	+ medium	No impact	+ small	+ medium
	W10	Finance for water infrastructure	No impact	+ small	+ small	+ medium	No impact
	F13	Reform public spending	+ medium	+ small	+ medium	+ medium	+ small
	C10	Global cooperation for finance and technology	+ large	+ large	+ large	+ medium	+ large
Others	B11	Multilateral environmental agreements	+ medium	+ small	+ small	+ small	+ medium
	B14	Reconnecting people with nature	+ small	+ small	+ small	+ medium	+ small
	H05	Nature on prescription	No impact	No impact	+ small	+ medium	+ small
	H15	Integrated health education	+ small	+ small	+ medium	+ medium	+ small

Rating table of the 71 response options (Figure SPM.8)

In Figure SPM.8, 43 of the 71 response options are rated positive for all five nexus elements. Eight options have a negative rating for at least one element: Rewilding (B08), Manage alien species (W11), Ecological intensification – aquatic foods (F06), Forest-based practices to address climate change (C12), Offshore wind power (C05), Solar photovoltaics on land (C06), City region food systems (F12), Dam operation (W03). Ten options include IC or NE ratings, most of them in the "ensure rights and equity" category.

Offshore wind power, solar photovoltaics on land and dam operation are covered, with Japan's framework and the status of the sea off Karatsu, on IPBES Nexus Assessment: Renewable Energy and Nature.

FAQ

Q1. What is the IPBES Nexus Assessment?

It is the IPBES thematic assessment of the interlinkages among biodiversity, water, food and health, which also treats climate change as a fifth nexus element. Its Summary for Policymakers was approved at the eleventh session of the IPBES Plenary in December 2024.

Q2. Which of the 71 response options have a negative rating?

In Figure SPM.8, eight response options have a negative rating for at least one nexus element: Rewilding (B08), Manage alien species (W11), Ecological intensification – aquatic foods (F06), Forest-based practices to address climate change (C12), Offshore wind power (C05), Solar photovoltaics on land (C06), City region food systems (F12), Dam operation (W03).

Q3. What do IC and NE mean in the table?

IC means the evidence was inconclusive and NE means there was no evidence. IC/NE means evidence was inconclusive for some criteria and non-existent for others.

Q4. Is the Summary for Policymakers available in Japanese?

Yes. A Japanese translation by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan and the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) is available on Zenodo and the IGES website. The English original takes precedence.

Source ledger

What this page leaves out

Individual background messages of the SPM, the scenario figures and the chapter contents are not covered. Figures that could not be confirmed in primary sources are not included.

About this page

Compiled by Hiroaki Kojima, Vice Director, Karatsu Farm & Food. Contact: kojima@karatsu-f-f.com (contact page). Published October 12, 2026.

Related links

▶ Karatsu Data Bank
▶ IPBES Nexus Assessment: Renewable Energy and Nature
▶ IPBES Nexus Assessment
▶ IPBESネクサス評価のまとめ（日本語）